The linguistic history of enslaved Africans in the United States is a testament to the oppressed people’s rich cultural heritage and the resilience of African traditions in the face of the cruelest and most barbaric of conditions. Despite all odds, slaves were able to not only maintain the culture of a wide variety of countries and locales from Eastern, Central, and even Western Africa, but to influence the shaping of the language of a new country. This influence can still be seen today, as we look back at the linguistic evolution that first gave rise first to pidgin dialects, then creoles, and eventually what we now know as African American Vernacular English (AAVE).
Common Misconceptions about Slaves and their Languages
Misconceptions surrounding the language of enslaved Africans were (and are) common due to poor recordkeeping, inherently racist viewpoints in what little written history there was, and the sheer variance and diversity of experiences across the new colonies.
Misconception 1: The original slaves mostly spoke the same language.
There was no single “African language.” The first slaves brought to the United States carried with them 1,000s of languages and dialects from various regions and tribes across Africa. This ranged from the Mandinka, Wolof, and Yoruba languages in West Africa to Kongo in Central Africa and beyond. These were not mutually intelligible and differed greatly in vocabulary, syntax, and grammar.
Misconception 2: Slaves were taught English.
This was extraordinarily rare aside from the most basic work-related vocabulary. At the same time, slaves were expected to somehow learn as quickly as possible, and many plantations prohibited slaves from speaking their native languages.
Misconception 3: Slaves developed their own style of English.
Slaves developed not one, but hundreds of English dialects and variants, and what eventually became AAVE still maintains geographical differences and variations. The style of English developed on a tobacco farm in Virginia where the majority of Igbo-speaking workers were from Nigeria was wildly different from the English that emerged on a Louisiana sugar plantation, where Yoruba-speaking slaves were exposed to not only English but also a heavy French influence. Different still was the English spoken on a cotton plantation in Georgia, and it was common for slaves on plantations just miles apart to speak vastly different dialects.
How Slave Owners Abused their Linguistic Power
Slave owners became wise to the power of language. In order to prevent clandestine organization and revolt, they made intentional efforts to prevent communication in two major ways: by separating speakers of the same language, sometimes intentionally splitting up families and sending them to different colonies, and by prohibiting the speaking of anything but English.
How Slaves Overcame These Difficulties through Evolving Language
Despite the threat of punishment and constant abuse, the first slaves made an incredible effort to retain their traditional customs, practices, and languages, which could usually only be practiced in secret. For the sake of communication amongst themselves and with the slave owners, pidgin languages evolved, which were a blend of European colonial languages (largely English) and African languages.
As time passed on a plantation, new generations were born speaking its pidgin language as their native language, and over the years this evolved into a creole English language, which was a broader and more widespread language that incorporated parts of different African linguistic practices.
The continuation of the slave trade throughout the 17th and 18th centuries paradoxically helped preserve African traditions in the colonies, as more native speakers arrived to make their mark on the evolving creole English languages. These marks proved indelible, as today’s African American Vernacular English incorporates grammatical features, pronunciation patterns, and vocabulary undeniably influenced by African languages.
US English Words with African Roots
While slave traders and owners tried to force assimilation, they themselves were unknowingly picking up distinctly African language, customs, and even religious practices and forms of worship. This is part of what is known as the unexpected “Africanization of the South.” One aspect of this was via vocabulary, as evidenced below.
- Banjo: The name for this supposedly very “Southernโ musical instrument actually has its roots in the Mandinka word bangoe, which is but one example of the enduring African musical heritage.
- Cola: From the Mandingo language’s “kola” for the cola nuts, native to Africa, that were used to produce the caffeinated beverage. One of the south’s major plantation areas, Atlanta, Georgia, later became the birthplace of Coca-Cola.
- Jazz: Originating from the Wolof word “jass,” meaning to become energized or enjoy oneself.
- Okra: With its origins in the Igbo word รณkรนrรน, this is a staple of Southern cuisine and what is now called โsoul food.”
- Yam: Another culinary contribution is from the Fula language’s nyami.
- Zombie: From the Kongo word zumbi, this word is still used when speaking of ancestral spirits and folklore.
Continued Influence
American culture does not exist without African culture, and the linguistic journey of enslaved Africans highlights the enduring impact of African heritage on language in the United States. The influence of African languages can still be seen today in the vibrant linguistic variations and cultural expressions of AAVE across different regions of the United States. This lasting legacy serves as a reminder of the strength, resilience, and cultural contributions of enslaved Africans, shaping not only language, but also the broader cultural identity of the nation.
